SIKHISM
Sikhism (IPA: /ˈsiːkɪzəm/ (help·info) or /ˈsɪk-/ (info); Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖੀ, sikkhī, IPA: [ˈsɪkkʰiː] (info)), founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century Northern India, is the fifth-largest organised religion in the world.[1] This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. Sikhism originated from the word Sikh, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit root śiṣya meaning "disciple" or "learner", or śikṣa meaning "instruction."[2][3]
The principal belief of Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū—represented using the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār, the Universal God. Sikhism advocates the pursuit of salvation through disciplined, personal meditation on the name and message of God. A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many devotees from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds. The text was decreed by Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, as the final guru of the Khalsa Panth. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctively associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world. Most Sikhs live in the state of Punjab in India and, prior to the country's partition, millions of Sikhs lived in what is now known as the Punjab province of Pakistan.[4]
Tuesday, August 26, 2008
Orthodox Chrstianity
Orthodox Christianity
The term Orthodox Christianity may refer to:
The Eastern Orthodox Church: the Eastern Christian churches of Byzantine tradition that adhere to the seven Ecumenical Councils, and are in full communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and with each other.
The Oriental Orthodox Churches: the Eastern Christian churches adhering to the teachings of only the first three Ecumenical Councils (plus the Second Council of Ephesus). This usage is uncommon, except among themselves.
Eastern Christianity: Any Christian tradition tracing its origins to the East (the Balkans, Asia Minor, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, etc.) including the Eastern Catholic churches. This usage is generally considered improper although it is not uncommon.
Any Christian faith that adheres to the teachings of the first seven (or three) Ecumenical Councils of the Church.
Any particular Christian doctrine that is theologically correct.
Any particular Christian "faith" believed by its followers to be correct by comparison to other faiths. In this sense every Church considers its own faith orthodox.
Note: The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches are not in communion and do not represent a unified religious tradition. As such, the term Orthodox Christianity when used to refer to these two Churches collectively refers more to a common Byzantine influence than to doctrinal matters.
The term Orthodox Christianity may refer to:
The Eastern Orthodox Church: the Eastern Christian churches of Byzantine tradition that adhere to the seven Ecumenical Councils, and are in full communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and with each other.
The Oriental Orthodox Churches: the Eastern Christian churches adhering to the teachings of only the first three Ecumenical Councils (plus the Second Council of Ephesus). This usage is uncommon, except among themselves.
Eastern Christianity: Any Christian tradition tracing its origins to the East (the Balkans, Asia Minor, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, etc.) including the Eastern Catholic churches. This usage is generally considered improper although it is not uncommon.
Any Christian faith that adheres to the teachings of the first seven (or three) Ecumenical Councils of the Church.
Any particular Christian doctrine that is theologically correct.
Any particular Christian "faith" believed by its followers to be correct by comparison to other faiths. In this sense every Church considers its own faith orthodox.
Note: The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches are not in communion and do not represent a unified religious tradition. As such, the term Orthodox Christianity when used to refer to these two Churches collectively refers more to a common Byzantine influence than to doctrinal matters.
Hinduism
HINDUISM
Hinduism differs from Christianity and other Western religions in that it does not have a single founder, a specific theological system, a single system of morality, or a central religious organization. It consists of "thousands of different religious groups that have evolved in India since 1500 BCE."
1Hinduism has grown to become the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. It claims about 837 million followers - 13% of the world's population.
2 It is the dominant religion in India, Nepal, and among the Tamils in Sri Lanka. According to the "Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches," there are about 1.1 million Hindus in the U.S. 3 The "American Religious Identification Survey" is believed to be more accurate.
4 They estimated smaller number: 766,000 Hindus in 2001. Still, this is a very significant increase from 227,000 in 1990. Statistics Canada estimates that there are about 157,015 Hindus in Canada.
5Hinduism is generally regarded as the world's oldest organized religion.
Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic religions. They recognize a single deity, and view other Gods and Goddesses as manifestations or aspects of that supreme God. Henotheistic and polytheistic religions have traditionally been among the world's most religiously tolerant faiths. However, until recently, a Hindu nationalistic political party controlled the government of India. The linkage of religion, the national government, and nationalism led to a degeneration of the separation of church and state in India. This, in turn, has decreased the level of religious tolerance in that country. The escalation of anti-Christian violence was one manifestation of this linkage. With the recent change in government, the level of violence will diminish.
Hinduism differs from Christianity and other Western religions in that it does not have a single founder, a specific theological system, a single system of morality, or a central religious organization. It consists of "thousands of different religious groups that have evolved in India since 1500 BCE."
1Hinduism has grown to become the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. It claims about 837 million followers - 13% of the world's population.
2 It is the dominant religion in India, Nepal, and among the Tamils in Sri Lanka. According to the "Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches," there are about 1.1 million Hindus in the U.S. 3 The "American Religious Identification Survey" is believed to be more accurate.
4 They estimated smaller number: 766,000 Hindus in 2001. Still, this is a very significant increase from 227,000 in 1990. Statistics Canada estimates that there are about 157,015 Hindus in Canada.
5Hinduism is generally regarded as the world's oldest organized religion.
Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic religions. They recognize a single deity, and view other Gods and Goddesses as manifestations or aspects of that supreme God. Henotheistic and polytheistic religions have traditionally been among the world's most religiously tolerant faiths. However, until recently, a Hindu nationalistic political party controlled the government of India. The linkage of religion, the national government, and nationalism led to a degeneration of the separation of church and state in India. This, in turn, has decreased the level of religious tolerance in that country. The escalation of anti-Christian violence was one manifestation of this linkage. With the recent change in government, the level of violence will diminish.
Buddism
BUDDHISM
Buddhism is both a world religion and a philosophy with between 230 and 500 million adherents worldwide.[1] It is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, sometimes known simply as "the Buddha", who lived c. 5th century BCE in ancient India, in parts of what is now Nepal and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Buddhism has spread through two main traditions; Theravada which extended south and east and now has widespread following in Southeast Asia, and Mahayana, which diffused first west, then north and later east throughout East Asia. Both traditions have since spread throughout the world. The Pali Canon is the base volume of Buddhist scriptures, but there are other complimentary scriptures adopted only in some traditions. Other differences is their emphasis on specific parts of Gautama Buddha's teachings (Dharma), and their subsequent interpretations as well as in the practices they consider most beneficial.
All traditions recognize the Gautama Buddha as an enlightened teacher who shared his insights in order to help sentient beings end their suffering (see The Four Noble Truths) in accordance with the laws of Karma by realizing the true nature of phenomena and thereby escaping the cycle of involuntary rebirths known to Buddhists as Samsara. Among the methods Buddhist schools apply towards that goal are ethical conduct, altruistic behaviour, renunciation of wordly matters, the training of one's mind through learning and meditation, devotional practices and the invocation of holy beings to seek their help in achieving Enlightenment. A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in The Three Jewels: Buddha; The Enlightened or Awakened One, Dharma; The Teaching (of Buddha), and Sangha;
Buddhism is both a world religion and a philosophy with between 230 and 500 million adherents worldwide.[1] It is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, sometimes known simply as "the Buddha", who lived c. 5th century BCE in ancient India, in parts of what is now Nepal and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Buddhism has spread through two main traditions; Theravada which extended south and east and now has widespread following in Southeast Asia, and Mahayana, which diffused first west, then north and later east throughout East Asia. Both traditions have since spread throughout the world. The Pali Canon is the base volume of Buddhist scriptures, but there are other complimentary scriptures adopted only in some traditions. Other differences is their emphasis on specific parts of Gautama Buddha's teachings (Dharma), and their subsequent interpretations as well as in the practices they consider most beneficial.
All traditions recognize the Gautama Buddha as an enlightened teacher who shared his insights in order to help sentient beings end their suffering (see The Four Noble Truths) in accordance with the laws of Karma by realizing the true nature of phenomena and thereby escaping the cycle of involuntary rebirths known to Buddhists as Samsara. Among the methods Buddhist schools apply towards that goal are ethical conduct, altruistic behaviour, renunciation of wordly matters, the training of one's mind through learning and meditation, devotional practices and the invocation of holy beings to seek their help in achieving Enlightenment. A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in The Three Jewels: Buddha; The Enlightened or Awakened One, Dharma; The Teaching (of Buddha), and Sangha;
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion[1] centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament.[2]
Its followers, known as Christians[3], believe that Jesus is the son of God and is also the Messiah (Christ) who was prophesied in the Old Testament (the part of scripture common to Christianity and Judaism). To Christians, Jesus Christ is a teacher, the model of a virtuous life, the revealer of God, and most importantly the saviour of humanity who suffered, died, and was resurrected in order to bring about salvation from sin.[4] Christians maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven, and most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge the living and the dead, granting everlasting life to his followers. Christians call the message of Jesus Christ the Gospel ("good news") and hence label the written accounts of his ministry as gospels.
Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion (see also Judeo-Christian).[5][6][7] Christianity began as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean and by the 4th century had become the dominant religion within the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, most of the remainder of Europe was christianized, with Christians also being a (sometimes large) religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to the Americas and the rest of the world.
Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization at least since the 4th century.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has between 1.5 billion[12][13] and 2.1 billion adherents,[14] representing about a quarter to a third of the world's population.[15]
Contents[hide]
1 Beliefs
Its followers, known as Christians[3], believe that Jesus is the son of God and is also the Messiah (Christ) who was prophesied in the Old Testament (the part of scripture common to Christianity and Judaism). To Christians, Jesus Christ is a teacher, the model of a virtuous life, the revealer of God, and most importantly the saviour of humanity who suffered, died, and was resurrected in order to bring about salvation from sin.[4] Christians maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven, and most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge the living and the dead, granting everlasting life to his followers. Christians call the message of Jesus Christ the Gospel ("good news") and hence label the written accounts of his ministry as gospels.
Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion (see also Judeo-Christian).[5][6][7] Christianity began as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean and by the 4th century had become the dominant religion within the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, most of the remainder of Europe was christianized, with Christians also being a (sometimes large) religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to the Americas and the rest of the world.
Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization at least since the 4th century.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has between 1.5 billion[12][13] and 2.1 billion adherents,[14] representing about a quarter to a third of the world's population.[15]
Contents[hide]
1 Beliefs
JUDAISM
Early History of Judaism, according to the Hebrew Scriptures:
Circa 2000 BCE, the G-d of the ancient Israelites established a divine covenant with Abraham, making him the patriarch of many nations. The term Abrahamic Religions is derived from his name. These are the three or four major religions which trace their roots back to Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i Faith. The Baha'i faith is often not included among the Abramic religions. Also, smaller non-Jewish groups such as Falashas, Karaits, Mandaeanism, Rastafarians, Samaritans, etc. trace their spiritual roots back to Abraham.
The book of Genesis describes the events surrounding the lives of the three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. (Joseph, who is recognized as a fourth patriarch by Christians is not considered one by Jews). Moses was the next major leader of the ancient Israelites. He led his people out of captivity in Egypt, and received the Mosaic Law from G-d. After decades of wandering through wilderness, Joshua led the tribes into the promised land, driving out the Canaanites through a series of military battles.
The original tribal organization was converted into a kingdom by Samuel; its first king was Saul. The second king, David, established Jerusalem as the religious and political center. The third king, Solomon built the first temple there.
Division into the Northern kingdom of Israel and the Southern kingdom of Judah occurred shortly after the death of Solomon in 922 BCE. Israel fell to Assyria in 722 BCE; Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 BCE. The temple was destroyed. Some Jews returned from captivity under the Babylonians and started to restore the temple in 536 BCE. (Orthodox Jews date the Babylonian exile from 422 to 352 BCE). Alexander the Great invaded the area in 332 BCE. From circa 300 to 63 BCE, Greek became the language of commerce, and Greek culture had a major influence on Judaism. In 63 BCE, the Roman Empire took control of Judea and Israel.
Jewish developments during the 1st century CE:
About 24 religious sects had formed by the 1st century CE of which the largest were the Basusim, Essenes, Pharisees, Sadducees and Zealots. Many anticipated the arrival of the Messiah, a religious-political-military leader who was expected to drive out the Roman invaders and restore independence.
Christianity was established initially as a Jewish sect, centered in Jerusalem. The group followed the teachings of Yeshua of Nazareth, who is now commonly referred to as Jesus Christ. The group was led by James, one of Jesus' four brothers. They are generally referred to as Jewish Christians. Paul broke with this tradition, created an alternative belief system of Pauline Christianity and spread the religion to the Gentiles (non-Jews) in much of the Roman Empire. A third religion, Gnosticism, emerged in a number of forms, such as Christian and Jewish Gnosticism.
Many mini-revolts led to the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 CE. The Jewish Christians were wiped out or scattered at this time. The movement started by Paul flourished and quickly evolved into the religion of Christianity. Jews were scattered throughout the known world. Their religion was no longer centered in Jerusalem; Jews were prohibited from setting foot there. Judaism became decentralized and stopped seeking converts. The local synagogue became the new center of Jewish life. Animal sacrifice was abandoned. Authority shifted from the centralized priesthood to local scholars and teachers, giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism.
The period from the destruction of the temple onward give rise to heavy persecution by Christians throughout Europe and Russia. Many groundless stories were spread, accusing Jews of ritual murder, the desecration of the Catholic host and continuing responsibility for the execution of Jesus . Unsubstantiated rumors continue to be circulated today. In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolph Hitler and the German Nazi party drew on centuries of Christian-based anti-Semitism, and upon their own psychotic beliefs in racial purity. They organized the Holocaust, the attempted extermination of all Jews in Europe. About 6 million were killed in one of the world's greatest examples of religious and racial intolerance.
The Zionist movement was a response within all Jewish traditions to centuries of Christian persecution. Their initial goal was create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The state of Israel was formed on 1948-MAY-18.
There are currently about 18 million Jews throughout the world. They are mainly concentrated in North America (about 7 million) and Israel (about 4.5 million).
Jewish Texts
Circa 2000 BCE, the G-d of the ancient Israelites established a divine covenant with Abraham, making him the patriarch of many nations. The term Abrahamic Religions is derived from his name. These are the three or four major religions which trace their roots back to Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i Faith. The Baha'i faith is often not included among the Abramic religions. Also, smaller non-Jewish groups such as Falashas, Karaits, Mandaeanism, Rastafarians, Samaritans, etc. trace their spiritual roots back to Abraham.
The book of Genesis describes the events surrounding the lives of the three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. (Joseph, who is recognized as a fourth patriarch by Christians is not considered one by Jews). Moses was the next major leader of the ancient Israelites. He led his people out of captivity in Egypt, and received the Mosaic Law from G-d. After decades of wandering through wilderness, Joshua led the tribes into the promised land, driving out the Canaanites through a series of military battles.
The original tribal organization was converted into a kingdom by Samuel; its first king was Saul. The second king, David, established Jerusalem as the religious and political center. The third king, Solomon built the first temple there.
Division into the Northern kingdom of Israel and the Southern kingdom of Judah occurred shortly after the death of Solomon in 922 BCE. Israel fell to Assyria in 722 BCE; Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 BCE. The temple was destroyed. Some Jews returned from captivity under the Babylonians and started to restore the temple in 536 BCE. (Orthodox Jews date the Babylonian exile from 422 to 352 BCE). Alexander the Great invaded the area in 332 BCE. From circa 300 to 63 BCE, Greek became the language of commerce, and Greek culture had a major influence on Judaism. In 63 BCE, the Roman Empire took control of Judea and Israel.
Jewish developments during the 1st century CE:
About 24 religious sects had formed by the 1st century CE of which the largest were the Basusim, Essenes, Pharisees, Sadducees and Zealots. Many anticipated the arrival of the Messiah, a religious-political-military leader who was expected to drive out the Roman invaders and restore independence.
Christianity was established initially as a Jewish sect, centered in Jerusalem. The group followed the teachings of Yeshua of Nazareth, who is now commonly referred to as Jesus Christ. The group was led by James, one of Jesus' four brothers. They are generally referred to as Jewish Christians. Paul broke with this tradition, created an alternative belief system of Pauline Christianity and spread the religion to the Gentiles (non-Jews) in much of the Roman Empire. A third religion, Gnosticism, emerged in a number of forms, such as Christian and Jewish Gnosticism.
Many mini-revolts led to the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 CE. The Jewish Christians were wiped out or scattered at this time. The movement started by Paul flourished and quickly evolved into the religion of Christianity. Jews were scattered throughout the known world. Their religion was no longer centered in Jerusalem; Jews were prohibited from setting foot there. Judaism became decentralized and stopped seeking converts. The local synagogue became the new center of Jewish life. Animal sacrifice was abandoned. Authority shifted from the centralized priesthood to local scholars and teachers, giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism.
The period from the destruction of the temple onward give rise to heavy persecution by Christians throughout Europe and Russia. Many groundless stories were spread, accusing Jews of ritual murder, the desecration of the Catholic host and continuing responsibility for the execution of Jesus . Unsubstantiated rumors continue to be circulated today. In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolph Hitler and the German Nazi party drew on centuries of Christian-based anti-Semitism, and upon their own psychotic beliefs in racial purity. They organized the Holocaust, the attempted extermination of all Jews in Europe. About 6 million were killed in one of the world's greatest examples of religious and racial intolerance.
The Zionist movement was a response within all Jewish traditions to centuries of Christian persecution. Their initial goal was create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The state of Israel was formed on 1948-MAY-18.
There are currently about 18 million Jews throughout the world. They are mainly concentrated in North America (about 7 million) and Israel (about 4.5 million).
Jewish Texts
varities of religious belief
Varieties of Religious Belief
atheism – No Gods exist.
agnosticism – Knowledge about God(s) is impossible; OR, knowledge about God(s) is not something that I possess.
deism – God exists, but he is not currently active in the universe.
monotheism – There is one, and only one, God.
henotheism – I worship one God, but there may be more.
monism – All is one.
dualism – All is two (most commonly good/evil or male/female).
impersonal idealism – God is an impersonal system of values that is worthy of worship.
pantheism – All that exists is God.
panentheism – God interpenetrates all of nature, but has an existence apart from nature.
animism – Everything has a soul.
“soft” polytheisms - "soft" polytheism refers to a version of polytheism that either denies the literal existence or the uniqueness of the gods.
functional polytheism – Symbolic use of polytheistic theology and terminology as a ritual tool or useful concept, without literal belief in the existence of multiple gods.
archetypal polytheism – Belief in multiple gods/goddesses as representing psychological (Jungian) archetypes, or elements of the human personality; belief that there are a relatively small set of unique gods/goddesses, and that gods/goddesses from different cultures who have similar personalities and domains are representations of the same god/goddess.
polytheism “plus” – polytheism “plus” one of the non-polytheist beliefs above. IE:
polytheism + monism – There are multiple Gods, but they are all aspects of one divine Force; OR, there are multiple Gods, and there is also a divine Force.
(also known as “monolatry”)
polytheism + dualism – There are multiple Gods, but they are all aspects of one of the two divine Forces (“all Gods are one God, all Goddesses are one Goddess”).
“hard” polytheisms - "hard" polytheism refers to a version of polytheism that believes in the literal existence of multiple gods/goddesses, with unique personalities, who are not reducible to one supreme god or source or god/goddess pair.
panpolytheism - Belief in all gods/goddesses, moving between pantheons at will; extreme eclectic polytheism.
henopolytheism - Devotion in one pantheon or set of gods/goddesses, without denying the existence of other gods/goddesses outside of that set.
single-pantheon polytheism - Belief in one pantheon or set of gods/goddesses, to the exclusion of all others.
atheism – No Gods exist.
agnosticism – Knowledge about God(s) is impossible; OR, knowledge about God(s) is not something that I possess.
deism – God exists, but he is not currently active in the universe.
monotheism – There is one, and only one, God.
henotheism – I worship one God, but there may be more.
monism – All is one.
dualism – All is two (most commonly good/evil or male/female).
impersonal idealism – God is an impersonal system of values that is worthy of worship.
pantheism – All that exists is God.
panentheism – God interpenetrates all of nature, but has an existence apart from nature.
animism – Everything has a soul.
“soft” polytheisms - "soft" polytheism refers to a version of polytheism that either denies the literal existence or the uniqueness of the gods.
functional polytheism – Symbolic use of polytheistic theology and terminology as a ritual tool or useful concept, without literal belief in the existence of multiple gods.
archetypal polytheism – Belief in multiple gods/goddesses as representing psychological (Jungian) archetypes, or elements of the human personality; belief that there are a relatively small set of unique gods/goddesses, and that gods/goddesses from different cultures who have similar personalities and domains are representations of the same god/goddess.
polytheism “plus” – polytheism “plus” one of the non-polytheist beliefs above. IE:
polytheism + monism – There are multiple Gods, but they are all aspects of one divine Force; OR, there are multiple Gods, and there is also a divine Force.
(also known as “monolatry”)
polytheism + dualism – There are multiple Gods, but they are all aspects of one of the two divine Forces (“all Gods are one God, all Goddesses are one Goddess”).
“hard” polytheisms - "hard" polytheism refers to a version of polytheism that believes in the literal existence of multiple gods/goddesses, with unique personalities, who are not reducible to one supreme god or source or god/goddess pair.
panpolytheism - Belief in all gods/goddesses, moving between pantheons at will; extreme eclectic polytheism.
henopolytheism - Devotion in one pantheon or set of gods/goddesses, without denying the existence of other gods/goddesses outside of that set.
single-pantheon polytheism - Belief in one pantheon or set of gods/goddesses, to the exclusion of all others.
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